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Victim Privacy and the Open Court Principle
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Chapter Seven
Selected Bibliography
Canada :
The Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Schedule B of the Canada Act, 1982 , (U.K.) 1982, c. 11
s.1 (guarantee of rights and freedoms subject only to reasonable limits)
s.2(b) (fundamental freedoms: freedom of expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication)
s.7 (legal rights: life, liberty and security of the person, and principles of fundamental justice)
s.8 (legal rights: the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure)
s.15 (equality rights: equality before and under law and equal protection and benefit of law)
Criminal Code
R.S. 1985, c. C-46
s. 276 Complainant privacy in several assault proceedings: evidence of complainant's sexual activity inadmissible ("rape shield" provisions)
s. 276.2(1) Jury and public excluded from hearings to determine the admissibility of evidence under s.276 (2) (upon application as per s.276.1)
s. 276.3 Ban on publication of information in s.276.1 hearing
s. 278.1-9 Production of record to accused
s. 486 (1) Exclusion of public from the courtroom in certain cases
s. 486 (1.1) Protection of child witnesses
s. 486 (2.1) Complainant or witness under the age of 18 or who has mental or physical disability may testify outside the courtroom (behind a screen/closed-circuit TV)
s. 486 (2.2) Condition of exclusion (re: testimony given under s.486 (2.2))
s. 486 (2.3) Accused not to personally cross-examine child witness
s. 486 (4.1) Victim/witness anonymity in proceedings not covered by s.486(3)
s. 517 Publication ban on "show cause" hearing at bail proceedings (mandatory on application by the accused)
s. 539 Ban on publication of evidence taken at preliminary inquiry (mandatory on application by the accused)
s. 542 (2) Ban on publication of admission or confessions tendered in evidence at the preliminary inquiry
s. 648 (1) Ban on publication of information at trial which was not presented to jury
s. 649 Ban on the disclosure of jury proceedings
s. 715.1 Videotape evidence of young complainant or witness in sexual assault proceedings is admissible
Young Offenders Act
R.S. 1985, c. Y-1
s. 17 (1) Order restricting publication of information presented at transfer hearing (upon application)
s. 38 (1) Identity not to be published (applies to accused, victim, witnesses)
s. 39 (1) Exclusion of any or all unnecessary persons from hearing
Youth Criminal Justice Act
R.S. 2002, c.1
s. 110(1) Identity of offender not to be published
s.111(1) Identity of victim or witness not to be published
s.118(1) No access to records unless authorized
s.132(1) Exclusion from hearing
Related Provincial Legislation
Child & Family Services Act
R.S.O. 1990, c. C-11
s. 45 (4) Hearings private unless court orders otherwise
s. 45 (7) Order excluding media representatives or prohibiting publication (where the court is of the opinion that the presence of the media or the publication of the report would cause emotional harm to a child involved in the proceedings)
s. 45 (8) Prohibition: identifying child
(applies to witness, participant, subject in proceedings, or child's parents or member of child's family)
Courts of Justice Act
R.S.O. 1990, c. C-43
s. 135 (2) Exclusion of public where there is the possibility of serious harm or injustice to any person
s. 135 (3) Disclosure of information of hearing under s.135 (2) (not contempt of court unless disclosure is expressly prohibited)
s. 136 (1) Prohibition against photography, etc., at court hearing
Fatality Inquiries Act
R.A.S. 2000, c. F-9
s. 41 Private hearings (proceedings can be closed if they involve disclosure of matters of public security, or intimate or personal matters)
Provincial Offences Act
R.S.O. 1990, c. P-33
s. 52 (2) Excluding public from hearing (for specific purpose)
s. 52 (3) Prohibition of publication of evidence or identity (to protect the reputation of a minor)
Victims Rights
Victims Bill of Rights, 1995
S.O. 1999, c.6
The Victims' Rights Act
S.M. 1998, c.44
Case Law
Pre-Charter:
Scott v. Scott , [1913] A.C. 417
(endorsing the open court principles and rejecting privacy as grounds for an in camera hearing)
Nova Scotia v. MacIntyre , [1982] 1 S.C.R. 175
(balancing the open court principles against law enforcement objectives and the privacy of the innocent in a search warrant context)
Vickery v. N.S.S.C. (Prothonotary), [1991] 1 S.C.R. 671
(denying a journalist access to videotape evidence of an accused's confession which was illegally obtained)
Post -Charter
Aubry v. Les Editions Vice Versa Inc. , [1998] 1 S.C.R. 591
(concluding that s.5 of the Quebec Charter of Rights and Freedoms protects the right to one's image, as part of a right to privacy)
A. (L.L.) v. B. (A.) , [1995] 4 S.C.R. 536
(holding that the O'Connor procedure for determining defence access to a complainant's counselling and therapeutic records, in sexual assault proceedings, applies to records held by third party counselling institutions)
Blencoe v. B.C. (Human Rights Commission) , [2000] 2 S.C.R. 307
(discussing the scope of "security of the person" under s.7 of the Charter , in the context of a claim that delay in the processing of a human rights complaint of sexual harassment denied the accused his constitutional rights)
Canadian Newspapers Co. v. Canada (A.G.), [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122
(upholding a mandatory ban on the publication of the identity of sexual assault victims and reversing the Ontario Court of Appeal decision to invalidate the mandatory ban and uphold a discretionary ban); rev'd. (1985), 49 O.R. (2d) 557 (O.C.A.)
CBC v. New Brunswick (A.G. ( Re: R. v. Carson)) , [1996] 3 S.C.R. 480
(upholding s.486(1) of the Code , which permits exclusion orders, and invalidating the order in this case)
Dagenais v. C.B.C. , [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835
(invalidating a common law publication ban imposed to protect the fair trial of the accused)
Edmonton Journal v. Alberta (A.-G.) , [1989] 2 S.C.R. 1326
(invalidating a statutory publication ban on information disclosed in matrimonial proceedings)
Hunter v. Southam , [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145
(linking s.8's guarantee against unreasonable search and seizure to the right of privacy)
M. (A.) v. Ryan , [1997] 1 S.C.R. 158
(holding, in a civil action against a therapist for sexual misconduct, that a partial privilege attaches to psychiatric counselling records, to protect a compelling privacy interest)
R. v. Adams , [1995] 4 S.C.R. 707
(holding that a ban on victim identity under s.486(3) cannot be revoked without the complainant's consent)
R. v. Carosella, [1997] 1 S.C.R. 80 (concluding that the accused has a constitutional entitlement to the production of documents, including counselling records, from either the Crown or third parties)
R. v. Darrach , [2000] 2 S.C.R. 443
(upholding the Criminal Code 's post- Seaboyer rape shield provisions)
R. v. Ewanchuk , [1999] 1 S.C.R. 330 (confirming that mistake of fact is only available as a defence in sexual assault proceedings where the accused honestly believed the complainant had communicated consent)
R. v. L. (D.O.) , [1993] 4 S.C.R. 419
(upholding s. 486 (2.1) of the Criminal Code permitting young complainants for certain offences to testify behind screens)
R. v. Levogiannis , [1993] 4 S.C.R. 475
(upholding s. 715.1 of the Criminal Code and videotape evidence for young
witnesses in sexual assault cases)
R. v. Mentuck , [2001] 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 512 ( S.C.C.)
(articulating a publication ban doctrine to govern conflict between the open court principles and undercover police operations)
R. v. Mills , [1986] 1 S.C.R. 863
(discussing the accused's right to trial within a reasonable time under s.11(b))
R. v. Mills , [1999] 3 S.C.R. 668
(upholding Criminal Code provisions enacted after the decision in R. v. O'Connor and restricting an accused's access to a victim's private records)
R. v. Morgentaler , [1988] 1 S.C.R. 30
(invalidating the Criminal Code 's abortion provision and discussing security of the person under s.7)
R. v. O'Connor , [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411
(establishing a test to balance the accused's right of full answer and defence, and the victim's privacy right in counselling and therapeutic records)
R. v. O.N.E. , [2001] 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 542( S.C.C.)
( Companion case to Mentuck , above)
R. v. Osolin , [1993] 4 S.C.R. 595
(upholding the accused's right to cross-examine the complainant on her medical record in sexual assault proceedings)
R. v. Regan , 2002 S.C.C. 12
(denying a stay of proceedings in sexual assault proceedings on the ground that the importance of prosecuting sexual offences outweighed abuses of authority on the Crown's part)
R. v. Seaboyer , [1991] 2 S.C.R. 577
(invalidating the Criminal Code 's rape shield provisions)
Secondary Literature
D. Alderson, " R. v. O'Connor and Bill C-46: Two Wrongs Do Not Make A Right" (1996-1997), 39 Crim. L.Q. 181-226.
W. J. Anderson, "The Open Court and a Free Press: A View From the Bench", (1994), 23 L. Soc. Gaz. 64-67.
N. Bala and H. McCormack, "Accommodating the Criminal Process to Child Witnesses: L. (D.O.) and Levogiannis " (1994), 25 C.R. (4 th ) 341-349.
E. Bennett, "Disclosure of Complainant's Medical and Therapeutic Records" (1996), 1 Can. Crim. L. Rev. 17-30.
K. Busby, "Discriminatory Uses of Personal Records in Sexual Violence Cases" (1997), 9 Canadian J. of Women's Law 148-177.
J. Cameron, "Dialogue and Hierarchy in Charter Interpretation: A Comment on R. v. Mills (2001), 38 Alta. L. Rev . 1051-1968.
____________, "Tradition and Change Under the Charter : The Adversary System, Third Party Interests and the Legitimacy of Criminal Justice in Canada", in J. Cameron, ed., The Charter's Impact on the Criminal Justice System (Toronto: Thomson Canada Ltd., 1996) 217-238.
____________, "Toward a Theory of Responsible Justice", in Open Justice (Montreal: Les Editions Themis, 1994) 138-151.
____________, "The Constitutional Domestication of our Courts: Openness and Publicity in Judicial Proceedings Under the Charter ", in P. Anisman and A. Linden, The Media, the Courts, and the Charter (Toronto: Carswell Co., 1986). 331-353.
____________, "The Rationales for Openness in Judicial Proceedings and the Rationales for Placing Limits on the Principle of Openness" (September 1985), unpublished paper for the Law Reform Commission of Canada.
S. Coughlan, "Complainants' Records After Mills : Same As It Ever Was" (2000), 33 C.R. (5 th ) 300-310.
F. Davey, "Karla's Web: A Cultural Investigation of the Mahaffy-French Murders" (Toronto: Penguin Books, 1994).
J. Dawson, "Compelled Production of Medical Records" (1998), 43 McGill L.J. 25-65.
R. Delisle, "Adoption, Sub-silentio, of the Paciocco Solution to Rape Shield Laws" (2001), 36 C.R. (5 th ) 254-257.
F. Falzon, "Hardly a 'Natural Born' Charter Right: Why Section 2(b) of the Charter Should Not Include a Right to Attend Hearings" (1994-1995), 5 N.J.C.L. 321-362.
M. Fuerst, "When Societal Rights Outweigh A Right to Confrontation: Charter Protection for Child Witnesses", in J. Cameron, ed., The Charter's Impact on the Criminal Justice System (Toronto: Thomson Canada Ltd., 1996) 161-179.
E. Grace, "Case Comment: R. v. Mills - Production of Health Records in Criminal Sexual Abuse Cases" (1999-2000), J. of Women's Health and Law 279-292.
E. Grace, "Compelled Production from Third Parties of Health Records in Sexual Abuse Cases: Legal Principles and Procedures and Guidelines for Health Care Providers" (1999-2000) J. of Women's Health and Law 59-91.
E. Grace and S. Vella, Civil Liability for Sexual Abuse and Violence in Canada (Toronto: Butterworths, 2000)
J. Gilmour, "Counselling Records: Disclosure in Sexual Assault Cases", in J. Cameron, ed., The Charter's Impact on the Criminal Justice System (Toronto: Thomson Canada Ltd., 1996) 239-269.
H. Holmes, "An Analysis of Bill C-46, Production of Records in Sexual Offence Proceedings" (1997), 2 Can. Crim. L. Rev. 71-110.
K. Kelly, "You must be crazy if you think you were raped": Reflections on the Use of Complainants' Personal and Therapy Records in Sexual Assault Trials" (1997), 9 Can. J. of Women & the Law 178-195.
Law Reform Commission of Canada, Public and Media Access to the Criminal Process , Working Paper 56 (1987)
D. Layton, "Third Party Production, Legal-Professional Privilege and Full Answer and Defence" (2000), 5 Can. Crim. L. Rev . 277-316.
M.D. Lepofsky, Open Justice: The Constitutional Right to Attend and Speak About Criminal Proceedings (Toronto: Butterworths, 1985).
____________, "Open Justice in 1990: The Constitutional Right to Attend and Report on Proceedings", in D. Schneiderman, Freedom of Expression and the Charter (Toronto: Carswell Co., 1991) 3-84.
A. Linden, "Limitations on Media Coverage of Legal Proceedings: A Critique and Some Proposals for Reform", in P. Anisman and A. Linden, eds., The Media, the Courts and the Charter , (Toronto, Carswell Co., 1986). 301-330.
B. MacFarlane & H. Keating, "Horrific Video Tapes as Evidence: Balancing Open Court and Victims' Privacy" (1999), 41 Crim. L.Q. 413.
D. MacIntosh, "Protecting Children: The Constitutionality of Sections 715.1 and 486(2.1) of the Criminal Code " (1993-1994), 4 N.J.C.L. 234-247.
D. Martin, "Rising Expectations: Slippery Slope or New Horizon? The Constitutionalization of Criminal Trials in Canada", in J. Cameron, ed., The Charter's Impact on the Criminal Justice System (Toronto: Thomson Canada Ltd., 1996) 87-121.
D. Paciocco, "Techniques for Eviscerating the Concept of Relevance: A Reply and Rejoinder to "Sex with the Accused on Other Occasions: The Evisceration of Rape Shield Protection" (1995), 33 C.R. (4 th ) 365-380.
K. Roach, Due Process and Victims' Rights: The New Law and Politics of Criminal Justice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999)
P. Sankoff, "Crown Disclosure after Mills : Have the Ground Rules Suddenly Changed?" (2000), 28 C.R. (5 th ) 285-294.
H. Stewart, " R. v. Darrach : A Step Forward in the Constitutionalization of Fault?"(1999), 4 Can. Crim. L. Rev. 9-23
D. Stuart, " Mills : Dialogue with Parliament and Equality by Assertion at What Cost? (2000), 28 C.R. (5 th ) 275-284.
A. Young, The Victims of Crime Research Series , "The Role of the Victim in the Criminal Process: A Literature Review - 1989 to 1999.
U.K. and the Commonwealth
A. Ashworth, "Victims' Rights, Defendants' Rights and Criminal Procedure" in A. Crawford and J. Goodey eds., Integrating a Victim Perspective within Criminal Justice: International Debates , (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Ltd., 2000) 185-204.
R.A. Caldwell and J.M.E. Garrow, "Garrow and Caldwell's Criminal Law in New Zealand, 6 th ed." (Wellington: Butterworths of New Zealand Ltd., 1981) 360-361, 397.
B. Cook, F. David and A. Grant, "Victim's Needs, Victim's Rights: Policies and Programs for Victims of Crime in Australia" (1999), Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 122-153.
M. Findlay, S. Odgers and S. Yeo, Australian Criminal Justice (Victoria: Oxford University Press, 1999) 333-355.
S. Garkawe, "The Role of the Victim During Criminal Court Proceedings" (1994), 17 UNSW L. J. 595-616.
Great Britain Central Office of Information (1990), Victim's Charter: A Statement of the Rights of Victims of Crime , prepared for the Home Office by the Central Office of Information, London: H.M.S.O.
R.I. Mawby, "Victims' needs or victims' rights: alternative approaches to policy-making" in M. Maguire and J. Pointing eds., Victims of Crime: a new deal? (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1988) 127-137.
D. Miers, "The Responsibilities and the Rights of Victims of Crime" (1992), 55 Modern L. Rev. 402-505.
H. Reeves and K. Mulley, "The New Status of Victims in the UK: Opportunities and Threats" in A. Crawford and J. Goodey, eds., Integrating a Victim Perspective within Criminal Justice: International DebatesI (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Ltd., 2000) 125-145.
J. Shapland, "Victims and Justice: Needs, Rights and Services", in J. van Dijk et al. eds., Criminal Law in Action: An Overview of Current Issues in Western Societies (Deventer: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1986) 393-404.
J.R. Spencer, "Improving the Position of the Victim in English Criminal Procedure" (1997), 31 Israel L. Rev. 286-299.
The United States
The United States Constitution
The First Amendment
(guarantees the freedom of speech and the freedom of the press)
Sixth Amendment
(guarantees the accused in criminal prosecutions a speedy and public trial)
Case law
Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn , 420 U.S. 469 (1975)
(holding that a civil damages award for broadcasting the name of a rape-murder victim, obtained from courthouse records, was unconstitutional)
Florida Star v. B.J.F. , 491 U.S. 524 (1989)
(concluding that the First Amendment precludes damages against a newspaper for publishing the name of a rape victim which was obtained from a publicly released police report)
Gannett Co. v. DePasquale , 443 U.S. 368 (1979)
(holding that neither the press nor the public has the constitutional right to attend pre -trial criminal proceedings)
Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court , 457 U.S. 596 (1982)
(holding that the mandatory closure of trials, for certain sexual offences, during the testimony of victims under age 18, violated the First Amendment)
Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia, 435 U.S. 829 (1978)
(holding unconstitutional a state law punishing media disclosure of confidential investigations into judicial misconduct)
Nebraska Press Assn v. Stuart , 427 U.S. 539 (1976)
(concluding that once a public hearing is held, what transpires cannot be subject to prior restraint)
Oklahoma Publishing Co. v. District Court , 430 U.S. 308 (1977)
(striking a state court injunction prohibiting the news media from publishing the name or photograph of a defendant in juvenile court)
Press-Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court of Calif. , 464 U.S. 501 (1984)
(concluding that the guarantee of open public proceedings in criminal trials invcludes voir dire examination of jurors)
Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia , 448 U.S. 555 (1980)
(upholding a constitutionally protected right of access to courtrooms)
Ross v. Midwest Communications , 870 F.2d 271 (5 th Cir. 1989)
(holding that the use of a rape victim's first name and picture of her residence was not actionable as an invasion of privacy, because such details were newsworthy in the circumstances of that documentary)
Smith v. Daily Mail Publishing Co. , 443 U.S. 97 (1979)
(holding that newspapers cannot be charged for publishing the name of a juvenile offender)
State v. Globe Communications Corp. , 648 So. (2d) 110 (1994)
(finding Florida's provision protecting the identity of sex offense victims invalid on its face, in criminal proceedings against one of the newspapers that published the name of the victim in William Kennedy Smith's rape trial)
Secondary Literature
P.A. Albrecht, "The Functionalization of the Victim in the Criminal Justice System" (1999), 3 Buff. Crim. L. Rev. 91.
M. Ash, "On Witnesses: A Radical Critique of Criminal Court Procedures" in P. Rock, ed., Victimology (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Ltd., 1994) 159-198.
H. Benedict, "Commentaries" (1993), 61 Fordham L. Rev. 1141-1145).
H. Benedict, Virgin or Vamp: How the Press Covers Sex Crimes (USA: Oxford University Press, 1992).
B.J. Berlin, "Revealing the Constitutional Infirmities of the ' Crime Victims Protection Act ': Florida's New Privacy Statute for Sexual Assault Victims" (1995), 23 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 513-560.
K. Chopra, "Peeping Press vs. Private Persecution: A Resolution of the Conflict between Freedom of the Press and Freedom From the Press" (1999), 19 Loy. L.A. Ent. L.J. 253-277.
S. Cohn, "Protecting Child Rape Victims From the Public and Press After Globe Newspaper and Cox Broadcasting " (1983), 51 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 269-289.
Comment ,"An Accommodation of Privacy Interests and First Amendment Rights in Public Disclosure Cases"(1976), 124 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1385-1417.
D.W. Denno, "Perspectives on the Disclosing Rape Victims' Names" (1993), 61 Fordham L. Rev. 1113-1131, and "Commentaries", at 1133-45.
L. Fairstein, "Commentaries"(1993), 61 Fordham L. Rev .1137-1140.
G. M. Fenner & J.L. Koley, "Access to Judicial Proceedings: To Richmond Newspapers and Beyond"(1981),16 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 415-459.
A. Frumkin, "The First Amendment and Mandatory Courtroom Closure in Globe NewspaperCo. v. Superior Court : The Press' Right, The Child Rape Victim's Plight"(1984), 11 Hastings Const. L. Q. 637-664.
M. Gartner, "Commentaries"(1993), 61 Fordham L. Rev. 1133-1135.
G. Giampetruzzi, "Raped Once but Violated Twice: Constitutional Protection of a Rape Victim's Privacy"(1992), 66 St. John's L. Rev. 151-177
A. Goy, "The Victim-Plaintiff in Criminal Trials and Civil Law Responses to Sexual Violence"(1996), 3 Cardozo Women's L.J. 335-348.
P. Grobman, "The Constitutionality of Statutorily Restricting Access to Judicial Proceedings: The Case of the Rape Shield Mandatory Closure Provision"(1986), 66 B.U. L. Rev. 271-310.
C. Haughwout, "Prohibiting Rape Victim Identification in the Media: Is it Constitutional?"(1992), 23 U. Tol. L. Rev . 735-750.
J. Hearn, " Globe Newspaper : Sounding the Death Knell for Closure in Courtroom Proceedings?"(1983), 3 Pace L. Rev. 395-414.
Lynne Henderson, Criminal Law Symposium Commentary: "The Federal Victims' Rights Amendment" (1998), 10 St. Thomas L. Rev. 579.
S. H. Hutt, "In Praise of Public Access: Why the Government Should Disclose the Identities of Alleged Crime Victims"(1991), 41 Duke L.J. 368-414.
A. Koskela, "Victims' Rights Amendments: An Irresistible Political Force Transforms the Criminal Justice System" (1997), 34 IdahoL. Rev. 157.
S. M. Leone, "Protecting Rape Victims' Identities: Balance Between the Right to Privacy and the First Amendment"(1993), 27 New Eng. L. Rev. 883-913.
P. Marcus and T. McMahon, "Limiting Disclosure of Rape Victims' Identities"(1991), 64 Cal. L. Rev. 1019-1055.
R. Mostseller, "Victims Rights and the Constitution: Moving from Guaranteeing Participatory Rights to Benefiting the Prosecution" (1998), 29 St. Mary's L.J. 1053.
J. Nowaczewski, "The First Amendment Right of Access to Civil Trial After Globe NewspaperCo. v. Superior Court "(1984), 51 U. Chi. L. Rev. 286-314.
K. O'Brien, "South Carolina: Last Haven for Rape Victim Privacy?"(1999), 50 S.C.L. Rev . 873-885 .
L. Perry, "When Identities are 'Wrongfully Disclosed': How The Florida Star v. B.J.F. Has Changed Privacy Protection"(1990), 3 U. Fla. J. L. & Pub. Pol'y 101-135.
W.T. Pizzi and W. Perron, "Crime Victims in German Courtrooms: A Comparative Perspective on American Problems"(1996), 32 Stanford J. of Int'l. L . 37-64.
K. Rhodes, "Open Court Proceedings and Privacy Law: Re-Examining the Bases for the Privilege"(1996), 74 Tex. L. Rev. 881-912.
K. Sanchez, "Barring the Media From the Courtroom in Child Abuse Cases: Who Should Prevail?"(1998), 46 Buff. L. Rev. 217-256.
L. Sebba, "Will the "Victim Revolution" Trigger A Reorientation of the Criminal Justice System?"(1997), 31 Israel L. Rev . 379-428.
M. Stanton, " Florida Star v. B.J.F. : The Wrongful Obliteration of the Tort of Invasion of
Privacy Through the Publication of Private Facts"(1991), 18 Hastings Const. L.Q. 391-416.
Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. D.Brandeis, "The Right to Privacy"(1890), 4 Harv. L. Rev. 193-220 .
L. Weakland, "Confusion in the Courthouse: The Legacy of the Gannett and Richmond Newspapers Public Right of Access Cases"(1986), 59 S. Cal. L. Rev. 603-639.
S. Wiegand, "Sports Heroes, Sexual Assault and the Unnamed Victim" (2001), 12 Marq. Sports L. Rev. 501-514.
C. Work, "Whose Privacy?"(2001), 55 Montana L. Rev. 209 (1994).
R.D. Workman, "Balancing the Right to Privacy and the First Amendment"(1992), 29 Hous. L. Rev. 1059-1089.
Civilian and Other Jurisdictions
S. Boylan, "Coffee from a Samovar: The Role of the Victim in the Criminal Procedure of Russia and the Proposed Victims Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution" (1998), 4 U.C. Davis J. of Int'l. L & Pol'y 103-118.
D. Krapac, "The Victim's Procedural Role in the Yugoslav Criminal Processes" (1985), 11 Rev. Of Socialist L . 369-386.
M. Joutsen, "Changing Victim Policy: International Dimensions", in G. Kaiser, H. Kury, and J. Albrecht, eds., Victims and Criminal Justice Vol. 3, part 2 (Freiburg: Max Planck Institute, 1991) 765-797.
M. Joutsen, "Listening to the Victim: The Victim's Role in European Criminal Justice Systems" (1987), 34 Wayne L. Rev. 95-124.
M. Kaiser, "The Status of the Victim in the Criminal Justice System According to the Victim Protection Act ", in G. Kaiser, H. Kuey, and J. Albrecht, eds., Victims and Criminal Justice Vol. 2 (Freiburg: Max Planck Institute, 1991) 543-578.
H. Kury and G. Kaiser, "The Victim's Position Within the Criminal Proceedings - An Empirical Study", in G. Kaiser, H. Kuey, and J. Albrecht, eds., Victims and Criminal Justice Vol. 2 (Freiburg: Max Planck Institute, 1991) 579-628.
I. Melup, "United Nations: Victims of Crime; Implementation of the Conclusions and Recommendations of the Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders; Measures Taken to Implement the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power" (1991), 2 Int'l. Rev. Victimology 29-59.
E. Muller-Rappard, "Perspectives on the Council of Europe's Approach to the Issue of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime" (1990), 12 Human Rights Quarterly 281-245.
J.F. Nijboer, "Protection of Victims in Rape and Sexual Abuse Cases in the Netherlands" (1997), 31 Israel L. Rev. 300-336.
K. Stefanowicz, "The Victim of Crime in Polish Criminal Law" (1992), 21 Capital U. L. Rev. 83-94.
J.J.M. van Dijk, "Victim Rights: A Right to Better Services or a Right to Active Participation?", in J. van Dijk et al. eds., Criminal Law in Action: An Overview of Current Issues in Western Societies (Deventer: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1986) 351-375.
United Nations
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power
A/Res/40/34, 29 November 1985, 96 th plenary meeting
Para. 6(d) (providing that the responsiveness of judicial and administrative processes to the needs of victims should be facilitated by … taking measures to minimize inconvenience to victims, protect their privacy , when necessary, and ensure their safety)
International War Crimes Tribunal Act
Art. 22 (stating that the International Tribunal shall provide in its rules and procedures for the protection of victims and witnesses, and that such measures shall include the conduct of in camera proceedings and the protection of the victim's identity)
I. Melup "United Nations: Victims of Crime: Implementation of the Conclusions and Recommendations of the Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders; Measures Taken to Implement the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (1991), 2 Int'l Rev. of Victimology 29-59
CHAPTER 1
[i] (1890) 4 Harv. L. Rev. 193, at 196.
[ii] Id.
[iii] C. Work, "Whose Privacy?" (1994), 55 Montana L. Rev. 209, at 221.
[iv] K. Kury and M. Kaiser, "The Victim's Position within the Criminal Proceedings - An Empirical Study", in G. Kaiser, H. Kury and H.-J. Albrecht, Victims and Criminal Justice , Vol. 51 Criminological Research Reports 581 (Freiburg: Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Penal Law, 1991).
[v] Charter of Rights and Freedoms , being Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982 , enacted by the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.) c.11.
[vi] The Queen v. Bernardo , unreported decision of LeSage A.C.J.O.C., May 29, 1995, at 38 (emphasis in original).
[vii] Preamble, The Victims' Bill of Rights, S.O.1995, c.6.
[viii] Id .
[ix] Id . at s.2(1)2.
[x] Id . (emphasis added).
[xi] See s.722 of the Criminal Code (providing that the court shall, for purposes of sentencing, consider any statement prepared by a victim of the crime describing the harm done or loss arising from the commission of the offence); S.C. 1995, c.22, s.6.
[xii] See, e.g., s.738 and following in the Criminal Code (providing for orders that the offender make restitution to the victim or victims or his or her crime); S.C. 1995, c.22, s.6.
[xiii] Bernardo , supra note 6, at 38.
[xiv] Id .
[xv] Id .
[xvi] Section 271, Criminal Code 1980-81-82, c.125, s.19.
[xvii] R. v. Lavallee , (1990), 76 C.R. (3d) 329.
[xviii] See s.273.2, 1992, c.38, s.1 (indicating when belief in consent is not a defence); see also R. v. Ewanchuck (1999), 22 C.R. (5 th ) 1 (elaborating on the requirements of the statutory provision, and confirming that the accused must how an honest and mistaken belief that the complainant had communicated consent).
[xix] See s.33.1, 1995, c.32, s.1 (defining the circumstances, which include interfering with the bodily integrity of another person, when a defence of self-induced intoxication is not available; see also R. v. Daviault , (1994), 33 C.R. (4 th ) 165 (S.C.C.) (recognizing intoxication as a defence to a charge of sexual assault).
[xx] It is understood that the complainant in sexual assault proceedings may either be a male or a female. The history of sexual assault, and the privacy and equality concerns of complainants is not gender-neutral. Recognizing, then, that males can also be victims but that the privacy issues have been discussed in gender-specific terms, the Report in most cases describes the complainant as female.
[xxi] See Chapter Three, titled "Victim privacy, sexual assault, and the Charter ".
[xxii] [1996] 3 S.C.R. 480.
[xxiii] Id . at 504.
[xxiv] Id .
[xxv] Id .
[xxvi] Id . at 505.
[xxvii] See Chapter Two, titled "The open court principle and the Charter ".
[xxviii] [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122.
[xxix] [1989] 2 S.C.R. 1326.
[xxx] [1994] 3. S.C.R. 835.
[xxxi] Supra , note 22.
[xxxii] [1991] 2. S.C.R. 577.
[xxxiii] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411.
[xxxiv] [1999] 3 S.C.R. 668.
CHAPTER 2
[xxxv] Criminal Code , 1892, c.29.
[xxxvi] See s.517 (providing for an order of non-publication of information disclosed in a show cause hearing, which is mandatory on application by the accused, where either the accused or the prosecutor intends to show cause under s.515).
[xxxvii] See s.539 (1) (providing for a non-publication order of evidence taken at a preliminary inquiry, which is discretionary at the request of the prosecutor and mandatory at the request of the accused).; see also s.542 (2) (prohibiting the disclosure of any admission or confession tendered in evidence at a preliminary inquiry).
[xxxviii] See Dagenais v. C.B.C. , [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835.
[xxxix] See s.631(6) (protecting the identity of jurors).
[xl] See s.649 (prohibiting the disclosure of jury proceedings).
[xli] Criminal Code , 1892, c.29, ss.794, 849.
[xlii] Criminal Code , R.S.C. 1906, c. 146, s.645.
[xliii] Id ., s.645 (3).
[xliv] As enacted in 1953-53, s.428 provided as follows:
The trial of an accused that is a corporation or who is or appears t be sixteen years of age or more shall be held in open court, but where the court, judge, justice or magistrate, as the case may be, is of opinion that it is in the interest of public morals, the maintenance of order or the proper administration of justice to exclude all or any members of the public from the court room, he may do so. Criminal Code , 1953-54, c.51, s.428.
[xlv] See C.B.C. v. New Brunswick (Re: R. v. Carson) , [1996] 3 S.C.R. 480.
[xlvi] Supra , note 8; see also the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act ; and the Firearms Act , S.C. 1995, c.39. See Young Offenders Act , R.S.C. 1985, c.Y-1, ss. 38 (prohibiting the publication of the names of young persons involved in the commission or prosecution of offences); 39 (granting a court or justice the power to exclude a person or the public from the proceedings); and 17 (providing for the non-publication of information disclosed at an application for transfer to ordinary court). The Youth Criminal Justice Act, R.S.C. 2002, c.1, came into effect April 1, 2003, ss. 110 and 111 (identity of offender, victims and witnesses not to be published); 132 (granting a court or justice the power to exclude a person or the public from the proceedings); 118 (prohibiting access to records unless authorized).
[xlvii] See Dagenais v. C.B.C. [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835; R. v. Mentuck (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 512 (S.C.C.); and R. v. O.N.E. (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 542 (S.C.C.).
[xlviii] Charter of Rights and Freedoms , being Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982 , enacted by the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.) c.11.
[xlix] Section 1 of the Charterid ., states:
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the rights and freedoms set out in it subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society.
[l] [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122.
[li] [1989] 2 S.C.R. 1326.
[lii] [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835.
[liii] [1996] 3 S.C.R. 480.
[liv] [1913] A.C. 417.
[lv] Id ., at 445.
[lvi] Id . at 447.
[lvii] Id. at 463.
[lviii] Id .
[lix] Id. at 477.
[lx] Id. at 485.
[lxi] Id .
[lxii] Gazette Printing Co. v. Shallow (1909), 41 S.C.R. 339, at 359.
[lxiii] [1936] A.C. 177, at 200 (J.C.P.C.).
[lxiv] [1982] 1 S.C.R. 175.
[lxv] Id . at 183.
[lxvi] Id .
[lxvii] Id . at 183-4.
[lxviii] Id .
[lxix] Id . at 185.
[lxx] Id . (emphasis added)
[lxxi] Id . at 186-7.
[lxxii] Section 2 states that "Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: … (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication"; the Charter , supra note 14.
[lxxiii] Section 32, id ., specifies that the Charter applies to the Parliament and government of Canada, including matters relating to the Territories, and to the legislature and government of each province; the Charter , supra note 14.
[lxxiv] Section 8, id ., provides: "Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure"; Id.
[lxxv] Section 7, id ., provides: "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice"; Id.
[lxxvi] [1986] 1 S.C.R. 103.
[lxxvii] [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122.
[lxxviii] When first enacted, s.442(3) provided that the order could only be made if the prosecutor applied for it, but then it was mandatory for the trial judge to grant it. S.C. 1974-75-76, c.93. It was amended to enable the judge to make the order at his or her initiative, and to make the order mandatory once either the prosecutor or complainant applied for it. S.C. 1980-81-82, c.125.
[lxxix] (1985), 49 O.R. (2d) 557 (O.C.A.).
[lxxx] Id. at 574-75.
[lxxxi] Id . at 577.
[lxxxii] Id . at 564.
[lxxxiii] It is understood that the complainant in sexual assault proceedings may either be a male or a female. The history of sexual assault, and the privacy and equality concerns of complainants is not gender-neutral. Recognizing, then, that males can also be victims but that the privacy issues have been discussed in gender-specific terms, the Report in most cases describes the complainant as female.
[lxxxiv] [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122, at 129.
[lxxxv] Id . at 130.
[lxxxvi] Id .
[lxxxvii] Id . at 131-32 (emphasis added).
[lxxxviii] Id . at 133. For instance, the section applies only to sexual offences, it restricts publication of facts related to identity and does not provide for a general ban, and is limited to instances where the prosecutor or complainant requests the ban.
[lxxxix] See, e.g. , R. v. Several Unnamed Persons (1983), 44 O.R. (20) 84 (Ont. H.C.) (dismissing applications by several accused charged with gross indecency for orders banning the disclosure of their identities).
[xc] See, e.g.Peterborough City v. Ramsden , [1993] 2 S.C.R. 1084.
[xci] Note, though, that her testimony was based on interview information with more than 100 victims. Supra note 45, at 563-64.
[xcii] (1989), 64 D.L.R. (4 th ) 577 (S.C.C.).
[xciii] Justice Cory wrote for himself, as well as for Chief Justice Dickson and Lamer J.; together with Wilson J., who concurred, the four judges formed a majority. La Forest J.'s dissent was joined by L'Heureux-Dubé J. and Sopinka J.
[xciv] Id . at 607.
[xcv] Id .
[xcvi] Id . at 608.
[xcvii] Id . at 610.
[xcviii] Id .
[xcix] Id . at 614.
[c] Id . at 615.
[ci] Id . at 589.
[cii] Id. at 590.
[ciii] Id . at 592.
[civ] Id . at 593.
[cv] Id . at 600.
[cvi] Id .
[cvii] Id . at 603.
[cviii] [1991] 1 S.C.R. 671.
[cix] Id . at 679.
[cx] Id . at 687 (emphasis added).
[cxi] Id . at 702 (emphasis added).
[cxii] Id . (emphasis added).
[cxiii] Id . at 714 (emphasis added).
[cxiv] Id .
[cxv] [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835.
[cxvi] Id .
[cxvii] Id . at 876 (emphasis in original).
[cxviii] Id . at 877.
[cxix] Id .
[cxx] Id . at 875.
[cxxi] Id. at 878 (emphasis in original).
[cxxii] In addition to C.B.C. (Re: R. v. Carson) , see R. v. Mentuck (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 512; and R. v. O.N.E. , (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 542.
[cxxiii] Dagenais , at 857-67 (explaining the convoluted grounds for finding jurisdiction to hear the appeal).
[cxxiv] Id . at 877.
[cxxv] Id .
[cxxvi] Id .
[cxxvii] [1996] 3 S.C.R. 480.
[cxxviii] R.S.C. 1985, c.C-46.
[cxxix] New Brunswick , at 508.
[cxxx] Id . at 515-6.
[cxxxi] Id . at 516 and f.
[cxxxii] Id . at 521.
[cxxxiii] Id .
[cxxxiv] Id .
[cxxxv] "Indeed", La Forest J. remarked, "Rice Prov. Ct. J. expressly stated that he did not have all the facts before him in making the order"; id . at 520.
[cxxxvi] Id . at 521.
[cxxxvii] Id . at 522.
[cxxxviii] Id . at 493.
[cxxxix] Id .
[cxl] Id . at 497.
[cxli] Id . at 504.
[cxlii] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411, see Chapter Three.
[cxliii] Id .
[cxliv] Id .
[cxlv] Id . at 503.
[cxlvi] Id . at 505.
[cxlvii] See R. v. Mentuck (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 512; and R. v. O.N.E. (2001), 205 D.L.R. (4 th ) 542.
[cxlviii] In Mentuck , Iacobucci J. re-framed the Dagenais test to allow explicitly for other crucial aspects of the administration of justice. There, the issue was whether a publication ban on the details of an undercover operation violated s.2(b) of the Charter . After agreeing with the Dagenais requirement that the ban be necessary and proportional, he stated the proper analytical approach this way: In his view, a ban should only be ordered when:
a) such an order is necessary in order to prevent a serious risk to the proper administration of justice because reasonably alternative measures will not prevent the risk; and
b) the salutary effects of the publication ban outweighs the deleterious effects on the rights and interests of the parties and the public, including the effects on the right to free expression, the right of the accused to a fair and public trial, and the efficacy of the administration of justice.
CHAPTER THREE
[cxlix] See Chapter Two.
[cl] It is understood that the complainant in sexual assault proceedings may either be a male or a female. The history of sexual assault, and the privacy and equality concerns of complainants is not gender-neutral. Recognizing, then, that males can also be victims but that the privacy issues have been discussed in gender-specific terms, the Report in most cases describes the complainant as female.
[cli] [1991] 2 S.C.R. 577.
[clii] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411.
[cliii] [1999] 3 S.C.R. 668.
[cliv] Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982 , being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c.11.
[clv] Hunter v. Southam , [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145, at 155.
[clvi] Id . at 155.
[clvii] Id .
[clviii] Id . at 159 (emphasis added).
[clix] Id .
[clx] R. v. Dyment , [1988] 2 S.C.R. 417, at 428.
[clxi] Id . at 427.
[clxii] Id . at 428.
[clxiii] Id . at 426.
[clxiv] Id . at 429.
[clxv] Id .
[clxvi] Section 7 states: "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice." Charter , supra note 6.
[clxvii] R. v. Mills , [1986] 1 S.C.R. 863.
[clxviii] Section 11 states that "Any person charged with an offence has the right ... (b) to be tried within a reasonable time." Charter , supra note 6.
[clxix] Supra note 19, at 918 (stating that the fundamental purpose of s.11(b) is to secure, within a specific framework, the more extensive right to liberty and security of the person of which no one may be deprived except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.)
[clxx] Id .
[clxxi] Id .
[clxxii] [1988] 1 S.C.R. 30, at 54.
[clxxiii] Id .
[clxxiv] Id . at 56.
[clxxv] Id . at 171.
[clxxvi] Id . at 175 (emphasis added).
[clxxvii] 1980-81-82-83, c. 125, s.19.
[clxxviii] R.S.C. 1985, c.C-46.
[clxxix] Id .
[clxxx] Section 273.2 (where belief in consent is not a defence); 1992, c.38, s.1.
[clxxxi] Section 33.1 (when defence of self-induced intoxication is not available); 1995., s.32, s.1.
[clxxxii] As noted above, the complainant, in this study, is described in gender-specific terms. By the same token, the accused is referred to as "he". Although there are exceptions to the gender-specific terminology used here, the debate about victims privacy in sexual assault proceedings presupposes that the accused and the victim are gender-specific individuals.
[clxxxiii] [1991] 2 S.C.R. 577.
[clxxxiv] Criminal Code , R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46 (formerly s.246.6 and 246.7 of the Criminal Code , R.S.C. 1970, c. C-34).
[clxxxv] Seaboyer , at 634-36.
[clxxxvi] Id . at 711.
[clxxxvii] Id . at 613. Those exceptions were rebuttal evidence, evidence going to identity, and evidence relating to consent to sexual activity on the same occasion as the trial incident.
[clxxxviii] Id . at 620.
[clxxxix] Id . at 619.
[cxc] Id . at 605-6.
[cxci] Id . at 617.
[cxcii] Id . at 603-4.
[cxciii] Id . at 619.
[cxciv] Id . at 598.
[cxcv] Id . at 612.
[cxcvi] Id . at 634-36.
[cxcvii] Id . at 712.
[cxcviii] Id .
[cxcix] Id . at 648.
[cc] The most common myths and stereotypes are listed in her reasons, id ., at 651-53.
[cci] Id . at 655.
[ccii] Id . at 650.
[cciii] Id . at 665.
[cciv] Id . at 664.
[ccv] Id . at 665.
[ccvi] Id . at 700.
[ccvii] Id . at 702-3.
[ccviii] Id . at 709-10 (emphasis in original).
[ccix] S.C. 1992, c.38.
[ccx] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 411.
[ccxi] S.C. 1997, c. 30.
[ccxii] [1999] 3 S.C.R. 668.
[ccxiii] [1993] 4 S.C.R. 419.
[ccxiv] See Section 715.1, R.S.C., 1985, c.C-46.
[ccxv] L.(D.O.) , at 441.
[ccxvi] Id . at 441-42.
[ccxvii] Id . at 465.
[ccxviii] See s.486(2.1), R.S.C. 1985, c. 19.
[ccxix] See Chapter Two.
[ccxx] O'Connor , at 503 (emphasis added).
[ccxxi] The other central issue in O'Connor , which is not discussed here, is whether the accused was entitled to a stay of proceedings in the circumstances.
[ccxxii] [1991] 3 S.C.R. 326.
[ccxxiii] Note that whereas Stinchombe addressed the duties of Crown officers, who are unquestionably bound by the Charter , third parties in possession of records pertaining to a complainant are not.
[ccxxiv] Thus the joint opinion stated that in cases involving the production of third party records, "we are concerned with the competing claims of a constitutional right to privacy in the information, on the one hand, and the right to full answer and defence on the other." O'Connor , at 433-34 (emphasis added).
[ccxxv] O'Connor , at 479.
[ccxxvi] Id. , at 479-80.
[ccxxvii] Id . at 480.
[ccxxviii] Id .
[ccxxix] Id . at 483.
[ccxxx] Id . at 482.
[ccxxxi] Id . at 483.
[ccxxxii] Id .
[ccxxxiii] Id . at 484.
[ccxxxiv] Id . at 487 (emphasis added).
[ccxxxv] Id . at 486.
[ccxxxvi] Id . at 490 (emphasis added).
[ccxxxvii] Id . at 488.
[ccxxxviii] Id .
[ccxxxix] Id .
[ccxl] Id .
[ccxli] Id . at 491.
[ccxlii] Id. at 492.
[ccxliii] Id . at 503.
[ccxliv] [1999] 3 S.C.R. 668.
[ccxlv] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 536, at 581.
[ccxlvi] Id . at 581-82.
[ccxlvii] [1997] 1 S.C.R. 80.
[ccxlviii] See Chapter Two.
[ccxlix] [1997] 1 S.C.R. 157.
[ccl] Id., at 171.
[ccli] Id . at 175.
[cclii] Mills , at 688.
[ccliii] Id .
[ccliv] Id . at 689.
[cclv] Id .
[cclvi] Id . at 713.
[cclvii] Id . at 718.
[cclviii] Id . at 719.
[cclix] Id . at 719-20.
[cclx] Id . at 724.
[cclxi] Id . at 726.
[cclxii] Id . at 727.
[cclxiii] Id . at 741.
[cclxiv] Id . at 727.
[cclxv] Id .
[cclxvi] Id . at 747.
[cclxvii] [2000] 2 S.C.R. 443.
[cclxviii] [1999] 1 S.C.R. 330.
[cclxix] [2002] S.C.C. 12.
[cclxx] Id . at para. 115.
CHAPTER FOUR
[cclxxi] The First Amendment states that "Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech or of the press", and the prohibition also applies to the fifty states through the Fourteenth Amendment. The Sixth Amendment which also binds the states as well as the federal government, states that in all criminal prosecutions, the accused "shall enjoy the right of a speedy and public trial". The United States Constitution .
[cclxxii] S. Boylan, "Coffee From A Samovar: The Role of the Victim in the Criminal Procedure of Russia and the Proposed Victim Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution" (1998), 4 U.C. Davis J. of Int'l L. & Pol'y 103, at 105.
[cclxxiii] See generally M. Joutsen, "Listening to the Victim: The Victim's Role in European Criminal Justice Systems", (1987) 34 Wayne L. Rev. 95-124.
[cclxxiv] Id . at 115.
[cclxxv] Though common law systems generally permit private prosecutions, criminal proceedings are rarely initiated by private citizens, and the victims of crimes, otherwise, have been viewed as witnesses with no independent status in the process.
[cclxxvi] See A. Goy, "The Victim-Plaintiff in Criminal Trials and Civil Law Responses to Sexual Violence", (1996) 3 Cardozo Women's L.J. 335-348; and W. T. Pizzi and W. Perron, "Crime Victims in German Courtroons: A Comparative Perspective on American Problems", (1996) 32 Stanford J. of Int'l L. 37-64.
[cclxxvii] Goy, id ., at 336.
[cclxxviii] Pizzi and Perron, supra note 6, at 59.
[cclxxix] Goy, supra note 6, at 340-41, and Pizzi and Perron, id. , at 60-61. Further information about the kind of public interest that will outweigh victim privacy was not provided.
[cclxxx] See Chapter Two.
[cclxxxi] J.R. Spencer, "Improving the Position of the Victim in English Criminal Procedure", (1997), Israel L. Rev. 286, at 290.
[cclxxxii] Id.
[cclxxxiii] Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 1976 , s.4.
[cclxxxiv] Spencer, supra note 11, at 291.
[cclxxxv] Id .
[cclxxxvi] See Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act , 1992, c.34.
[cclxxxvii] Spencer, supra note 11, at 291 (explaining the Children and Young Persons Act 1933, s.39).
[cclxxxviii] Id .
[cclxxxix] Id ., at 286-87.
[ccxc] H. Reeves and K. Mulley, "The New Status of Victims in the UK: Opportunities and Threats", in A. Crawford and J. Goodey, eds. Integrating a Victim Perspective Within Criminal Justice: International Debates (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Ltd., 2000), at 125.
[ccxci] Id . at 134.
[ccxcii] See Chapter Three.
[ccxciii] S. Garkawe, "The Role of the Victim During Criminal Court Proceedings" (1994), 17 U.N.S.W.L.J. 595, at 598.
[ccxciv] M. Findlay, S. Odgers and S. Yeo, Australian Criminal Justice (Victoria: Oxford University Press, 2 nd ed. 1999), at 344.
[ccxcv] Victims Rights Act , 1996 No. 114 (N.S.W.).
[ccxcvi] Garkawe, supra note 23, at 602.
[ccxcvii] Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act , s. 4(1) & (2).
[ccxcviii] Id ., s. 5.
[ccxcix] Id ., s.6.
[ccc] Id .
[ccci] [1995] 1 N.Z.L.R. 539.
[cccii] Id . at 546.
[ccciii] Id . at 546.
[ccciv] Id . at 544.
[cccv] The Constitution Act, 1867 , U.K. 30 & 31, c.3.
[cccvi] The First Amendment states, in part, that "Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom speech, or of the press...." The United StatesConstitution .
[cccvii] See, e.g.,Canadian Newspapers v. Canada (A.G.) , [1988] 2 S.C.R. 122 (upholding the ban on publication of a sex crime victim's identity); and Edmonton Journal v. Alberta (A.G.) , [1989] 2 S.C.R. 1326 (invalidating a publication ban on information revealed in matrimonial proceedings); see Chapter Two.
[cccviii] Palko v. Connecticut , 302 U.S. 319 (1937).
[cccix] Note that the Fourth Amendment, which guarantees the "right of the people to be secure ... against unreasonable searches and seizures", is akin to s.8 of the Charter . Note also Griswold v. Connecticut , 381 U.S. 479 (1965) (discovering a constitutional right of privacy in the "penumbras" emanating from the specific guarantees, as well as in other extra-textual sources of authority).
[cccx] But see Aubry v. Vice-Versa , [1998] 1 S.C.R. 591 (upholding liability, under Quebec's Civil Code , for the unauthorized publication of a photograph).
[cccxi] 430 U.S. 829 (1977).
[cccxii] 443 U.S. 97 (1979).
[cccxiii] 420 U.S. 469 (1975).
[cccxiv] 491 U.S. 524 (1989).
[cccxv] 420 U.S. 469 (1975).
[cccxvi] Cohn , at 487.
[cccxvii] Id . at 491-92.
[cccxviii] Id . at 494-95.
[cccxix] Id . at 495.
[cccxx] Id . at 496.
[cccxxi] Id . at 496 (emphasis added).
[cccxxii] 430 U.S. 308 (1977).
[cccxxiii] 427 U.S. 539 (1976).
[cccxxiv] Oklahoma Publishing , at 311.
[cccxxv] 443 U.S. 97 (1979).
[cccxxvi] Id . at 103.
[cccxxvii] Given that there were other ways to protect the confidentiality of juvenile proceedings, criminal penalties were in the Court's view unnecessary. Id . at 105.
[cccxxviii] Id . at 109-10 (emphasis added).
[cccxxix] 491 U.S. 524 (1989).
[cccxxx] Id . at 533.
[cccxxxi] Id . at 536.
[cccxxxii] Id . at 541.
[cccxxxiii] Id . at 542 (citing Coker v. Georgia ).
[cccxxxiv] Id . at 545.
[cccxxxv] Id . at 553.
[cccxxxvi] Id . (emphasis added).
[cccxxxvii] Id .
[cccxxxviii] 448 U.S. 555 (1980).
[cccxxxix] Id . at 573.
[cccxl] Id . at 569.
[cccxli] Id . at 570.
[cccxlii] Id . at 571.
[cccxliii] Id . at 581.
[cccxliv] See Chapter Two.
[cccxlv] 457 U.S. 596 (1982).
[cccxlvi] Id . at 607.
[cccxlvii] Id . at 609-10.
[cccxlviii] Id . at 610 (emphasis in original).
[cccxlix] Id . at 615.
[cccl] Id . at 616.
[cccli] Id . at 617.
[ccclii] See Canadian Newspapers v. Canada , Chapter Two.
[cccliii] Id . at 618.
[cccliv] Id . at 619.
CHAPTER FIVE
[ccclv] See H. Benedict, Virgin or Vamp: How the Press Covers Sex Crimes (U.S.A.: Oxford University Press, 1992).
[ccclvi] See Chapter Three.
[ccclvii] See Chapter Two.
[ccclviii] Much, if not most, of the the discussion in the American literature is specific to the crime of rape. As noted in Chapter Three, Canada has abandoned that offence and replaced it with a series of offences which relate to sexual assault. The text in this part of the Chapter refers to rape, sexual assault, and sexual offences without interrupting the discussion to refine the terminology on an ongoing basis.
[ccclix] Benedict, supra note 1, at 3.
[ccclx] Id .
[ccclxi] Id . at 14-18. The myths she lists and describes in the pages cited are: rape is sex; the assailant is motivated by lust; the assailant is perverted or crazy; the assailant is usually black or lower class; women provoke rape; women deserve rape; only "loose" women are victimized; sexual attack sullies the victim; rape is a punishment for past deeds; and women cry rape for revenge.
[ccclxii] Id . at 18.
[ccclxiii] Id . at Preface .
[ccclxiv] Id . at 254.
[ccclxv] See Chapter Four.
[ccclxvi] Smith v. Daily Publishing Co. , 443 U.S. 97, at 108 (1979).
[ccclxvii] The Florida Star v. B.J.F. , 491 U.S. 524, at 553 (1989).
[ccclxviii] Id . at 547.
[ccclxix] Id .
[ccclxx] Id . at 537.
[ccclxxi] Id .
[ccclxxii] M. Gartner, "Panel Discussion", in Symposium: The Privacy Rights of Rape Victims in the Media and the Law (1993), 61 Fordham L. Rev. 1133.
[ccclxxiii] See Chapter Two.
[ccclxxiv] D. Denno, "Perspectives on Disclosing Rape Victims' Names", in Symposium , supra note 18, at 1129 (quoting Dershowitz).
[ccclxxv] Gartner, supra note 18.
[ccclxxvi] S. Hutt, "In Praise of Public Access: Why the Government Should Disclose the Identities of Alleged Crime Victims" (1991), 41 Duke L.J. 368, at 398 (quoting Nadine Strossen).
[ccclxxvii] K. O'Brien, "South Carolina: Last Haven for Rape Victim Privacy?" (1999), 30 S.C.L. Rev. 873, at 880.
[ccclxxviii] Gartner, supra note 18, at 1133.
[ccclxxix] Id .
[ccclxxx] Id .
[ccclxxxi] P. Marcus and T. McMahon, "Limiting Disclosure of Rape Victims' Identities" (1991), 64 Cal. L. Rev. 1019, at 1033.
[ccclxxxii] H. Benedict, "Panel Discussion" in Symposium , supra note 18, at 1145.
[ccclxxxiii] Id .
[ccclxxxiv] S. Leone, "Protecting Rape Victims' Identities: Balance Between the Right to Privacy and the First Amendment" (1993), 27 New Eng; L. Rev. 883, at 911.
[ccclxxxv] Gartner, supra note18, at 1133.
[ccclxxxvi] Id .
[ccclxxxvii] Id .
[ccclxxxviii] Marcus and McMahon, supra note 27, at 1034, n. 73 (quoting Ziegenmeyer).
[ccclxxxix] [1995] 4 S.C.R. 707.
[cccxc] Id . at 712.
[cccxci] Id . at 721.
[cccxcii] See Chapter Two.
[cccxciii] R. v. Bernardo , [1993] O.J. No. 2047.
[cccxciv] The Queen v. Bernardo , unreported decision of LeSage A.C.J.O.C. , May 29, 1995.
[cccxcv] Re Estate of French et al. v. Ontario (Attorney General) , (1996) 134 D.L.R. (4 th ) 587 (On. Gen. Div.); aff'd (1998), 122 C.C.C. (3d) 449 (O.C.A.).
[cccxcvi] See generally, B. MacFarlane and H. Keating, "Horrific Video Tape as Evidence: Balancing Open Court and Victim's Privacy" (1999), 41 Crim. L. Q. 413.
[cccxcvii] R. v. Bernardo , [1993] O.J. No. 2047.
[cccxcviii] Id . at para. 141.
[cccxcix] Id . at para. 142.
[cd] Id . at para.137.
[cdi] Id . at para. 140.
[cdii] Id . at para. 75.
[cdiii] Id . at para. 76.
[cdiv] Id . at pare. 83.
[cdv] Id . at para. 86.
[cdvi] Id . at paras. 134-35.
[cdvii] See Chapter Two.
[cdviii] K. Davey, Karla's Web (Toronto: Penguin Books Canada, 1994) at 40.
[cdix] Id .
[cdx] Id . at 40-41.
[cdxi] Id. at 94-95.
[cdxii] The Ontario Court of Appeal quashed an appeal from the order of Kovacs J., on the ground that there was no right of appeal to the appellate court from the trial judge's decision. (1994), 95 C.C.C.(3d) 437 (O.C.A.).
[cdxiii] See Chapter Two.
[cdxiv] As John Rosen, who was acting for Bernardo, explained, the parents of the two deceased girls are no different from the parents of other victims of murder. R. v. Bernardo , (1995) 38 C.R. (4 th ) 229, at 234 (Ont. Gen. Div.).
[cdxv] Id . at 236.
[cdxvi] Id . at 237.
[cdxvii] Id .
[cdxviii] The Queen v. Bernardo , unreported decision of LeSage A.C.J.O.C., May 29, 1995, at 35-36 (emphasis added).
[cdxix] The application for leave to appeal was filed on June 2, 1995 and dismissed, without reasons, on June 13, 1995.
[cdxx] Re Estate of French et al. v. Ontario (Attorney General) (1996), 134 D.L.R. (4 th ) 587 (Ont. Gen. Div.); aff'd (1998), 122 C.C.C. (3d) 449 (O.C.A.).
[cdxxi] (1999), 38 O.R. (30) 347 (O.C.A.).
[cdxxii] Id ., at 357-58.
[cdxxiii] See C. Blatchford, "Destroying evidence sets an eerie precedent", National Post , December 22, 2001.
[cdxxiv] This is the question posed by the third step of the Oakes proportionality test. There, the question is only asked after a Charter violation has survived the other parts of the analysis. Here, the question is asked in a more abstract or reflective way.
[cdxxv] Bernardo , supra note 39, at 36.
[cdxxvi] Id . at 37.
[cdxxvii] Id .
[cdxxviii] Karla: A Pact With the Devil (Canada: Cantos International, 2003).
