Study findings in the context of brain development

The views and experiences of young adults who participated in this project seemed consistent with current knowledge about brain development. For example, they viewed emerging adulthood as a distinct life stage which fell between adolescence and a fully mature adult. This is inline with recent developments in neuroscience which have shown that during the ages of approximately 18–25, the prefrontal cortex of the brain continues to develop, and as it does there is increased capacity for reasoning, decision-making, judgement, and impulse control (Lindell & Goodpoint, 2022; van Koppen, 2018).

The late development of the prefrontal cortex means that other areas of the brain which are fully developed much earlier can override rational thought among young adults. For example, the limbic system which is responsible for emotional and behavioural responses is usually fully developed by age 12. As a result, while impulse control is still developing, young adults can be susceptible to impetuous and short-sighted decision making (Arain et al., 2013; Galvan et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2009; Pimentel, 2013; Steinberg, 2015).

“[Emerging adulthood] is the first time you are experiencing freedom and it’s an age full of experimentation and you’re full of curiosity. You’re trying everything for the first time and you don’t always know how to make the right choices. It’s an age where we should not face the same punishment that someone in their 40’s or 50’s might face who have done those mistakes over and over again and knows what the repercussions are. Just like children who make mistakes, you correct that not by beating them up but by talking to them and helping them understand why what they did was wrong. Young adults are still learning and making mistakes, so why should it be different?”

The brain systems that develop ‘cold cognition’ (i.e., thinking that takes place under ideal conditions) reach adult levels of maturity before those that govern ‘hot cognition’ (i.e., thinking that takes place under conditions of emotional or social arousal; Steinberg, 2015). For example, while emerging adults can function similarly to older individuals in calm situations, in circumstances of hot cognition, the brain of an 18- to 21-year-old functions like that of a 16- or 17-year-old (Lindell & Goodpoint, 2022).

Several participants recognized this in themselves and articulated a need for more support to help them make better decisions when they were in states of emotional or social arousal. Many also spoke of the value of programs such as the anger management programs currently offered within the justice system.

“I see a need for support to assist with decision making. This is the information that sticks with you. Knowing the negative outcomes for not abiding by your probation or [community] sentence helps your thought process for what to do in a situation where you’re at a crossroads of whether to break your probation or whatever. It can definitely be the deciding factor.”

“The Respectful Relationships course helped because it teaches you about anger management which is something I really need to learn.”

As the brain of an emerging adult is not fully developed it can still be heavily influenced by experiences and environmental factors (Steinberg, 2014; Steinberg, 2015). This ensures that with exposure to positive experiences and supports, young adults can overcome and heal from past traumas, and can develop new skills and behaviours (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019). Conversely, for many young people, incarceration can be traumatizing, particularly if they experience abuse by staff or other inmates, or are isolated from family (Woolf & Shi, 2009). Such traumatic experiences can disrupt a young person’s development and exacerbate or trigger mental health problems that may persist well into adulthood (Fuhrmann et al., 2015).

“I need help to deal with my trauma. I’m working on my anger, but it’s the reason I’m [in custody]. I was the only child my mom gave up [for adoption] and I took it out on my brothers and sisters for years. I’m trying to work on me. Trying to be softer, less angry, but it’s heavy and I need support to deal with it.”

“I got the shit kicked out of me by the older guys [in adult corrections]. When I got out, because I was a youth and didn’t know how to deal with everything I experienced [while in custody]. All the violence, the abuse – it all gave me PTSD and…I drank a lot so I didn’t think about it.”

Positive role models

Exposure to positive adult relationships and natural mentors have been shown to reduce criminal activity (Kelley & Lee, 2018). However, many young adults who participated in this study lacked such role models in their life, and those in custody often turned to older inmates for guidance when they lacked other role models.

“Like we need a mentor…a good role model…so the young guys don’t always feel like they have to go to the older guys for help.”

The influence of peer relationships increases during adolescence and these relationships maintain their importance during emerging adulthood (MacLean et al., 2013). As a result, young adults may imitate their peers, even if they are complete strangers, and engage in high-risk behaviours because of a desire for positive attention and to feel a sense of belonging (Riedijk et al., 2017).

“As a younger adult in custody I noticed the younger guys are also easy to pressure and might end up doing worse crime because of who they get in with.”

Boredom and isolation

Emerging adulthood is a period of development characterized by high levels of exploration. Exposure to new experiences and ways of thinking contribute to identity development, but this can be interrupted by isolation and lack of social stimuli (Lindell & Goodpoint, 2022). One of the major criticisms young adults raised about their time spent in adult custody was the lack of opportunities to engage in educational, employment and life skills programming, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. They also noted the negative impact on their mental health of spending lengthy amounts of time in lockdown in their cell and in isolation.

“When I was first here, there was schooling, there were the Aboriginal programs, there was church, you could go to chaplain…they had Narcan [training on administering naloxone], art programs, NA, AA…out programs [outdoor and in-community programs]. There’s not much of that here now and everybody feels tense and on edge because they have nothing to do.”

A lack of meaningful interaction with others and with the natural world, as well as a lack of physical activity and visual stimulation, as occurs when young people are locked in a cell for an extended period of time, can be sufficient to permanently change the brain (Lobel & Akil, 2018). For example, the hippocampus–which is the part of the brain responsible for setting the level of emotional reactivity and anxiety, encoding stressful events, and controlling the body’s response to stressors–loses neuroplasticity during isolation. As a result, an individual loses emotional control, stress regulation, and other cognitive processes, which in some cases can have lasting effects on mood, including severe depression (Lobel & Akil, 2018).

“The male prisoners can exercise and they can garden but we [females] have only half a basketball court. It just feels inhumane.”

“I feel like you guys need to focus on separate confinement…There should be people from outside [custody] coming in to check on you, and just talk to you so you aren’t just left to rot. There should at least be someone to talk to. They can’t expect you to go from that to integrate back into society.”

One young adult spoke about the long-term impact on his mental health of having served a custodial sentence.

“I went to counselling every week when I got out for anxiety. It was geared towards becoming social again. I became very quiet and observant while I was in jail– watched my surroundings. I would get anxiety going to grocery stores and being around people. You have to relearn everything. When I got out [of adult custody] the first time, I would lock my doors and stay inside at certain times because that’s when I was used to being locked up. My girlfriend would come home and ask what I was doing. It took 8–10 months to not lock my doors at certain times. I would check behind me constantly. It took me a long time to be able to be in big crowds. Even walking through the airport when I was first released was overwhelming because of all the noises around me.”

Prosocial leisure activities

Engaging in appropriate leisure activities can help to foster identity development as young adults try new experiences and develop social relationships outside the confines of school and work. However, too much leisure time or leisure time spent away from others can delay or interfere with identity development (Layland et al., 2018). Leisure activities which have been associated with positive identity development include physical activity, artistic expression and technology-based leisure. In addition, exposure to prosocial content on media, such as in television or music, has the potential to increase prosocial thoughts, empathy, and helping behaviour in emerging adults (Coyne et al., 2016).

“I’m writing my own music and making my own beats [while in youth custody]. It’s very therapeutic and it’s just something different for us during the week. The music teacher, she’s so nice and doesn’t judge us. It’s nice to just escape for a bit…I’m also doing the sewing program. I’ve always wanted to learn how to make my own clothes. It’s amazing, I’m coming out of here with like a whole new wardrobe!”

Age-appropriate social support

Emerging adulthood is a period of learning about intimacy and mutual support, intensification of pre-existing friendships, developing new relationships and changing family relationships (Hochberg & Konner, 2020). As individuals move into emerging adulthood, peer and/or intimate partner support become more important to psychological and social well-being (Arnett, 2015; Lee & Dik, 2017; Meadows et al., 2006; Qualter et al., 2015).

Initiating, establishing, and maintaining romantic relationships and positive peer relationships requires a complex set of skills that unfold developmentally and socially during emerging adulthood (Shulman & Connolly, 2013). The development of relationship skills can increase problem solving skills, healthy attachment, and emotion regulation (Shulman et al., 2011; Xia et al., 2018). However, interaction with the justice system can isolate a young person from their support networks and dramatically limits their opportunities to build prosocial peer relationships (Lindell & Goodpoint, 2022).

Emerging adults who had experienced custody talked about becoming isolated from their social supports. They also felt they missed out on opportunities to develop healthy new relationships. Conversely, those who had been able to develop positive social networks while serving a community sentence spoke of the value of these supports.

“You come in here [adult corrections], you lose your girlfriend, it’s too far for your family to visit. Everyone else’s life goes on and you are stuck here, just stuck.”

“Regardless of the length of their sentence, you give them that opportunity to interface with members of that community to help build empathy but also to motivate you to be prosocial and motivate you not to reoffend.”

Online connections and skills

The plasticity of the brain during adolescence and emerging adulthood ensures that young adults are quick to adapt to changes in technology and will master new games and platforms they are exposed to quicker than an older adult whose brain has lost some of that plasticity (Geidd, 2012). The use of social media serves as an important socialization context in which emerging adults assert their developing autonomy, explore their identity and initiate and maintain social relationships (Bjornsen, 2018).

Many young people who had experienced custody spoke of missing out on opportunities to connect through social media, follow the latest trends and engage with games and other online opportunities that their peers in the community had access to. Some subsequently felt they were lagging behind their peers in terms of their general technology skills, and specifically their ability to navigate social media. They also struggled to connect with other young adults because they lacked social references that their peers had, and had not played some of the current popular games.

“We are human and need social connection and emotional support. If we don’t have these things, we are less than human. We need opportunities to connect and stay connected through social media, and to have better access to other media so we can stay connected to our culture through certain songs, shows and movies… and more opportunities to learn and build our online skills.”

Employment skills

Employment generally requires the learning and mastery of new skills, establishing a routine and engaging socially, all of which are associated with improved cognitive functioning and increased neuroplasticity (Vance et al., 2016). Emerging adulthood is a stage where a young person will typically move from a focus on gaining work experience to laying the groundwork for a career (Arnett, 2014). As young people try out different jobs and post-secondary programs, they learn about their abilities and interests, and continue to develop their identity (Arnett, 2014). Those who lack work skills and are unemployed are at increased risk of experiencing mental health and substance use challenges. Even a single period of exclusion from education, employment or training can increase the chances of long-term negative employment outcomes (Jongbloed & Giret, 2022; Ralston et al., 2016).

When participants in this project were asked about any needed changes within the justice system, they most commonly spoke about wanting to gain more employment skills and work experience. They also spoke of their concerns about future engagement with the criminal justice system because of their lack of employment skills.

“I’m never really prepared at all to be back into community. I get released back into the community with what I came in with and you just get released into the world. It would be really nice if there was a structured environment where you weren’t going to get released into the street…where you could live, eat, and stay while you try to get a job. The day and age we live in, we all need a job…There’s a show on A&E called Inmate to Roommate, where someone who is just released lives with an ex-con. It’s like a jail buddy. Like a peer mentor. The ex-con helps the guy [who was recently released] stay clean…helps him to get a job and live a normal life and stuff. It’s support and it’s accountability…and it means that the roommate has someone to talk to who knows what it’s like [to be in custody].”

Reducing stress

Enduring extended periods of severe or sustained stress can fundamentally alter the structure of the brain during emerging adulthood (Lobel & Akil, 2018). Young adults spoke of the high levels of stress they experienced within the justice system including when waiting to go to court and while on remand, and of the impact this had on their life and mental health.

“The court process is a huge stressor for young people waiting for their sentence…The provincial system is usually pretrial, so there’s more stress for inmates because you’re waiting on your sentence. You could be ready to kill your cell mate, there’s that much tension.”

Summary

The experiences and perspectives of young adults who participated in this project appeared consistent with current knowledge about brain development, including their assertion that emerging adulthood should be viewed as a distinct developmental period where young people need tailored supports. These include opportunities to develop employment skills, life skills and social skills, as well as to engage in prosocial relationships and activities. Young people also described the negative effects of stress, boredom and isolation, which was also consistent with current knowledge of the developing brain.