Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Earls, C., & David, H. (1989). Male and female prostitution: A peview. Annals of Sex Research, 2, 5-28.

Academics from various disciplines have written about male and female prostitution. A majority of these interdisciplinary discussions attempt to make sense of the phenomenon of prostitution by describing the psychosocial characteristics of prostitutes. This paper criticizes the available literature on methodological and conceptual grounds: i.e., 1) inadequate operationalization of subtypes of prostitutes; 2) “faulty subject selection methods”; 3) studies that include inappropriate comparison groups; 4) distinct research and theory based on the sex of the prostitute. Despite these weaknesses, the authors identify several variables that distinguish prostitutes from non-prostitutes.

Earls, C., & David, H. (December 1990). Early family and sexual experiences of male and female prostitutes. Canada’s Mental Health, 7-11.

A growing body of research suggests that prostitutes grew up in dysfunctional family settings. However, studies asserting this claim have used incommensurate comparison groups. Earls and David administer a structured questionnaire (98 questions) to 100 males and 100 females, including 50 males and 50 females engaged in prostitution. Questions focus on early family and sexual experiences. The data suggest no significant difference between prostitute and non-prostitute groups regarding divorce and/or separation among parents, parental absence or level of reported verbal abuse. However, female prostitutes lived away from home at an earlier age and experienced more physical violence at home than their female counterparts. Male prostitutes witnessed more violence between parents and drug and alcohol use among family members, and were more likely to identify male partners as their first sexual encounter. Both male and female prostitutes characterized their home-life atmosphere in more negative terms, and they were more likely to have experienced sexual interaction with a family member. The authors conclude that factors associated with family environment may be too inclusive and possibly misplaced. Instead, home-life experiences may contribute to prostitution as an economic alternative; correlates of entering prostitution appear to include running away at an early age, having a history of sexual abuse, and, for males, having homosexual preferences.

Earls, C., & David, H. (1989a). A psychosocial study of male prostitution. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 18, 401-419.

The authors administered a semi-structured questionnaire to 50 male prostitutes and 50 male non-prostitutes. The subjects were matched on age, sex and socio-economic status (SES). Questions focused on family background, sexual and criminal history, present life circumstances, substance use, and “sexual practices with clients.” Thirty-five of the respondents were given the Beck Depression Inventory and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The data suggest that differences between the groups do not support previous research on demographic profiles of male prostitutes. The authors argue that factors associated with financial gain, homosexuality, and early sexual experiences may be more significant in determining entry into prostitution than family background.

Edney, R. (1988). The impact of sexual abuse on adolescent females who prostitute” In M. Michaud. (Ed.) Dead end: Homeless teenagers, a multi-service approach. Calgary: Detselig Enterprises.

This article examines the following questions: why do some sexually abused youth enter prostitution? What is the impact of sexual abuse on youth involved in prostitution? The author contextualizes sexual abuse by examining several social structural variables, including: cultural factors, the family, sexual socialization, social services and schools. The impact of sexual abuse on the victim’s self-esteem and physical and mental condition is outlined. Overall, the author argues that child sexual abuse is a reflection of male domination and control. Young victims of sexual abuse experience a sense of loss and diminished self-esteem, thereby preparing them for sexual acts they may perform on the streets.

Edney, R. (1990). The relationship between sexual abuse and juvenile prostitution in females. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia,British Columbia.

This study involves interviews with 8 women involved in prostitution who have experienced sexual abuse. The narrative data reveal both social-structural and intra-psychic factors that influenced the participant’s decision to enter prostitution. The author identifies several social-structural factors or the cultural and societal context of childhood development (i.e., cultural factors, gender stereotypes, family, schools, social networks, social services, employment structures, religious beliefs, sexual abuse and entry into prostitution). Intra-psychic factors are identified as alienation, identity and personal control. The author uses Sullivan’s (1984) theory of critical interpretation to examine the impact of the social structure on the respondents’ lives, behaviour and choices. “This research found that sexual abuse and the victims’ responses to sexual abuse prepared and trained the young girls for prostitution.” The data suggest a link between alienation, sexual abuse and entry into juvenile prostitution. Respondents reported their personal control was limited by social limitations maintained by social structural conditions.

Federal/Provincial/Territorial Working Group on Prostitution. (1998). Report and Recommendations in Respect of Legislation, Policy and Practices Concerning Prostitution-Related Activities. Ottawa: author.

In 1992, the federal/provincial/territorial (F/P/T) Deputy Justice Ministers instructed a working group on prostitution to examine “legislation, policy and practices concerning prostitution-related activities and bring forward recommendations to address problems posed by prostitution.” Youth involvement in prostitution, violence against prostitutes and neighbourhood concerns associated with the street sex trade were earmarked as primary issues of concern. The Working Group released its findings and recommendations in December 1998, which included several recommendations with respect to youth involvement in prostitution. The Working Group stated that legal and social intervention strategies must be developed to combat youth involvement in the sex trade, and youth involved in s.213 offences should be dealt with as in need of assistance and “distinct from being treated as offenders.” Other recommendations concerning youth involvement in prostitution included: the need to increase awareness of the “dynamics of youth involved in prostitution” among criminal justice personnel; amend s.212(4) to make it easier for police to arrest customers of young prostitutes; special witness protection programs to help young prostitutes testify in court against pimps and customers; the development of “interdisciplinary protocols” which involve child welfare, the police and the crown to address youth involvement in the sex trade – an approach that uses the criminal justice system as a measure of last report; emphasis on alternative measures for youth involved in prostitution; and, improved services (i.e., education, prevention, harm reduction and exit supports) for youth involved in prostitution “or at risk of such involvement.”

Firme, T., Grinder, R., & Barreto, M. (1991). Adolescent female prostitutes on the streets of brazil: An exploratory investigation of ontological ssues. Journal of Adolescent Research, 6, 493-504.

This study provides a preliminary description of young female prostitutes in Brazil. The study includes interviews with 21 young prostitutes actively soliciting on the streets of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Contrary to first world literature suggesting a link between entry into prostitution and abusive socialization, the present study finds that a proportion of third world youth are drawn into prostitution because of the prospective financial reward. The authors suggest that participation in adolescent female prostitution in Third World countries may have a greater association with “economic considerations” than factors related to social stress.

Fleischman, J. (1995). Violence against prostitutes in Halifax (1980-1994). Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada.

In December 1985, the federal government passed legislation that criminalized communicating in public for the purpose of prostitution. Immediate concern surfaced that the communicating law would force prostitutes to ply their trade in more secluded and dangerous locales, to avoid detection by police. Sponsored by the Department of Justice Canada, this study examines if there is a relationship between the enforcement of the communicating law and violence against street prostitutes. The report design includes police occurrence reports, homicide data, interview with criminal justice personnel, and an analysis of newspaper items. The sources describe numerous incidents of violence against prostitutes by pimps and customers. However, the police, crown, defence and social agencies state that enforcement of Bill C-49 (the communicating law) has not created a more dangerous working milieu for street prostitutes.

Gaetz, S., O’Grady, B., & Vaillancourt, B. (1999). Making money: The shout clinic report on homeless youth and employment. Toronto: Central Toronto Community Health Centres.

This report documents the findings from “action research” with 360 homeless youth in Toronto. According to the authors, participatory action research involves “including those who are intended as the subject of research in all aspects of the research, including the design, implementation and analysis of the project.” The goal of the research was to “determine the needs and capacities of street youth with regards to employment.” The study included structured, self-administered surveys and open-ended interviews. The sample of 360 youth (64% male) completed the self-administered survey, while 20 youth participated in open-ended interviews. The authors found that a majority of youth experienced an “unbearable” home life that propelled them onto the streets. A majority of youth experienced physical, sexual and emotional abuse before running away or being “thrown away” from home. Ten percent of the sample was involved in the sex trade as a way to make money. The authors argue the “…choices that street youth make to survive are shaped by the lives that they had experienced prior to being on the street, as well as being related to their experiences while on the street. The youth who appear to be the most disadvantaged, both in terms of their past and present circumstances, tend to be associated with economic activity which is rooted in the sex industry.” The report includes recommendations to help youth “move in the direction of employment – and a life off the streets.”

Garbarino, J. (1980). Meeting the needs of mistreated youths. Social Work, 25, 122-126.

This document provides information and outlines theories about the abuse of adolescents as a precursor for recommending strategies to address the needs of mistreated youth between the ages of 12 to 18. According to national (U.S.) data of case reports, adolescents are victims of abuse in approximately 50% of the cases reported to “state central registries.” The data also suggest that abused youth runaway from home and may engage in prostitution, become delinquents, attempt suicide and abuse substances. Participation in many of these activities results in frequent contact with social services and juvenile justice agencies. Many of these youth experience problems in adulthood, and difficulty in the “parental role in particular.” The author advocates a multi-agency approach for meeting the needs of mistreated youths, including the introduction of “peer and self-help groups” and other community-based initiatives.

Gibbs Van Brunschot, E., & Brannigan, A. (1992). Childhood correlates of career prostitution. Unpublished paper.

Numerous studies explore the link between child sexual abuse and careers in prostitution. After reviewing the extant literature, Van Brunschot and Brannigan agree there is evidence linking sexual abuse with subsequent involvement in prostitution; however, they highlight considerable disagreement concerning the prevalence and nature of the link. This study uses a model of career selection for prostitution that emphasizes familial background, personal trauma, and deviant tendencies as factors contributing to involvement in prostitution. The authors conducted in-depth interviews with 18 adult female prostitutes, 10 female youth prostitutes, and eight male respondents (one was a juvenile). A control group of 95 introductory level junior college and university students completed a questionnaire. In contrast to previous research, the authors fail to find a significant difference between the amount of sexual abuse experienced by prostitute and control groups. The strongest coefficients associated with prostitution were criminal records, runaway experience, having children, physical abuse, and non-traditional familial arrangements.

Gibson-Ainyette, I., Templer, D., Brown, R., &Veaco, L. (1988). Adolescent female prostitutes. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 17, 431-438.

This study examines the characteristics and functioning of adolescent female prostitutes. Psychometric instruments and a life-history inventory were administered to a group of adolescent female prostitutes and a control group of “normal” female adolescents. Results from the Minimult clinical scales reveal that adolescents displayed greater psychopathology. Prostitutes were more likely to express negative attitudes towards men, and they were more likely to have been enrolled in special education courses.

Godin, R., Mathews, F., & Metson, J. (Eds.). (1990). Does anybody care? Proceedings of the follow-up consultation on juvenile (adolescent) prostitution. Halifax: Children’s Aid Society.

In 1987, the National Advisory Committee on Juvenile (Adolescent) Prostitution issued its “Summary of Proceedings” of the “National Consultation on Juvenile Prostitution.” This document summarizes the “Follow-Up Consultation” that took place in 1990 to evaluate any changes in policy, services and legislation concerning youth prostitution. Forty-five participants from the initial process were invited to participate in the follow-up consultation; questionnaires were administered to gather information from the remaining participants who could not attend the follow-up session. The follow-up consultation reveals that few changes occurred in relation to youth prostitution; it remains a serious issue characterized by inadequate policies and services, and youth prostitutes continue to experience abuse (both before they enter prostitution and once they are on the streets) and various health-related problems. The document outlines steps and actions for combating youth prostitution.

Gonsiorek, J., Bera, W., & LeTourneau, D. (1994). Malesexual abuse: A trilogy of intervention strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

This book was written to expose mental health and human service professionals to different perspectives of intervention for adolescent and young adult males who are victims or perpetrators of sexual abuse. Two chapters are dedicated to the issue of male prostitution (chapters 8 and 9). The author examines the effects of prostitution and argues that assessing the impact of prostitution includes consideration of three variables: life experiences prior to involvement in prostitution, the extent and duration of the involvement, and the individual’s sexual orientation. The author rejects conventional views of the causes of entry into prostitution, arguing they are too focused on personal pathology/deviance and neglect important social interactions. The author supports the view espoused by Mathews (1989), which accounts for various social relationships. Various treatment approaches and the “detached youth work” model are also described.

Gray, D. (1973). Turning-out: A study of teenage prostitution. Urban Life and Culture, 1, pp.401-425.

This study, conducted in Seattle, Washington between August 1970 and June 1971, examines why some female adolescents enter prostitution. The author constructs a natural history on the process of entering prostitution by conducting interviews with 21 adolescent female prostitutes. The data reveal that many youth experienced “emotional depravation” in their family, school and work environments. Many report a lack of social reinforcement, resulting in alienation from conventional environments and subsequent exposure to “unconventional behaviour.” All participants indicated they knew someone (a relative or friend) involved in prostitution before they entered the sex trade, which provided the opportunity to be introduced to the “culture of prostitution.” The author suggests the transition into prostitution is related to its accessibility, and ability to provide the social acceptance that is absent in other areas of the youths’ lives. Descriptions of relationships with pimps and customers ranged from business-like to violent and brutal. Despite conflict with the law and encounters with abusive customers and pimps, the social and material gains associated with prostitution, and its demand in the market economy make it difficult for many youths to leave the sex trade.

* Green, J.K., Mulroy. S. & O’Neill, M. (1997). Young people and prostitution from a youth perspective. In D. Barret (Ed.), Child Prostitution in Britain. London: The Children’s Society.

The authors describe the social service and legislative environment in Britain as having links to youth poverty, homelessness and prostitution. Among the issues identified by service providers who deal with youth prostitutes: health concerns, the negative impact of criminalization; and the barriers that many prostitutes face when accessing services. The authors encourage a multi-agency response to youth prostitution, as well as welfare and harm reduction measures. The articles also discuss the need for more research, better training for service providers, and measures for targeting child abusers.

Green, A., Day, S., & Ward, H. (2000). “Crack cocaine and prostitution in London in the 1990s. Sociology of Health and Illness, 22, (1) 27-39.

The exchange of sexual services for crack cocaine is a growing concern in London, England. This article reports findings from a study that explored the presence and the impact of crack on the sex industry. Interviews were conducted with thirty-seven women aged 16-42 years (all but one was currently involved in prostitution). Eighty-four percent of the respondents started working in the sex industry before using crack cocaine. Age at entry into prostitution varied between 12 and 37 years. Overall, interviews revealed “women who have used crack and worked in prostitution show that use of the drug presents few difficulties for many in the industry, in contrast to widely held beliefs.” However, many respondents believed that the use of crack increased their vulnerability to a number of hazards such as exploitation, violence and unsafe sex. Women reported occasional difficulties separating recreational drug use from work. Although none of the women exchanged sex for crack exclusively, many started providing sexual services to suppliers and to clients who used drugs. Crack was present within all sectors of the industry, not simply within street prostitution. The authors conclude that established occupational codes (“such as being paid with money for services and using condoms”) would help health promotion initiatives for existing crack users and those new to the sex trade.

Greene, J., Ennett, S., & Ringwalt, C. (1999). Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth. American Journal of Public Health, 89 (9), 1406-1409.

The authors of this study examine the “prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youths.” Interviews were conducted with 640 shelter youths and 528 street youths in various cities across the United States. The report demonstrates that 27.5% of the street sample and 9.5% of the shelter sample had previously engaged in survival sex (defined as the selling of sex to “meet subsistence needs”). Length of time away from home was correlated with participation in survival sex. Further, youth who had been victimized, participated in criminal behaviors, attempted suicide, used or were using drugs, contracted an STD and had once been pregnant were more likely to have been involved in survival sex. The authors maintain that prostitution is an “economic survival strategy,” and suggest that childhood abuse is an important precursor to participation in survival sex. “The findings highlight the urgent need to develop intensive and long-term services that provide alternatives to the sex trade as mean of meeting economic needs, as well as comprehensive counseling and treatment services to assist youths with drug addictions, mental health problems, and family problems.”

* Green, R. The sexual tourist and international law. In J.E. Elias, V.L. Bullough, V. Elias, & G. Brewer (Eds.), Prostitution: On whores, hustlers and johns (pp. 446-473). New York: Prometheus Books.

There are numerous legal and ethical issues associated with sex tourism laws. Legal issues include inconsistency between countries with respect to age of consent. “A person having sex with a young person in a host country may commit a crime in his home country if the age of consent is higher in the home country.” Several problems impede the collecting evidence of sex tourism offences (e.g., quality of potential witnesses and the location of the witness and accused). “The ethical issues include the potential paternalism of first world countries attempting to right wrongs in third world countries.”