Youth Involvement in Prostitution: A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Appendix A: Annotated Bibliography (continued)

Hagan, J., & McCarthy, B. (1992). “Street life and delinquency” British Journal of Sociology, 43 (4), 533-561.

Research examining the relationship between social class and delinquency among youth attending schools has neglected the experiences of street involved youth. In this study, the authors administered surveys to a sample of school and street youth in Toronto (N=1000). The study relies on an integrated control and strain theory of delinquency and crime, focusing on “parental class origins; family structure; parental control and conflict; school involvement, commitment and conflict; and the current class conditions involved in life on the street.” The data reveal that youth from “surplus populations” are more likely to experience difficulties at home, followed by running away and taking part in serious delinquency. The authors conclude that “current class conditions” of street youth causes delinquency, and they encourage further research that incorporates “street-based” samples.

Hagan, J. & McCarthy, B. (1997). Mean streets: Youth crime and homelessness. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Many street-involved youth are exposed to “highly criminogenic” situations, both in their backgrounds and in their street experiences. However, most criminological research ignores the adversity of the street life and its impact on the incidence of crime. The authors of this book examine the family and social backgrounds, living conditions and criminal activities of street youth in Toronto and Vancouver. Two data sources include a survey of 390 street youth in Toronto and a panel study of 482 street youth interviewed in Toronto and Vancouver. Disruptive family backgrounds (including class and its association with “erratic and explosive parenting, parental rejection and family disruption”) and unstable school experiences contribute to a youth’s decision to runaway to the streets. Once on the streets, situational difficulties influence many youth to participate in a variety of crimes (e.g., prostitution and theft). Two differences are noted between Toronto and Vancouver: Toronto has a well established social service network that offers street youth some form of a “social safety net,” thereby decreasing their involvement in street crime. Vancouver has a “crime control oriented model” and a lack of services to provide assistance. Street youth in Vancouver therefore spend more time on the streets and are exposed to more criminal opportunities; hence, they experience more conflict with the law. All street youth have criminal associations where they learn “skills and knowledge” associated with street crime. Involvement in the criminal justice system may only serve to further entrench street youth in a lifestyle of “deviance and chronic offending.” The authors intertwine the concepts of strain, control, embeddedness, criminal capital and labeling within a “social capital theory of crime.”

Halldorson Jackson, L. (1998). Voices from the shadows: Canadian children and youth speak out about their lives as street sex trade workers. Out From the Shadows: International Summit of Sexually Exploited Youth Project. Canada: National Summary.

This document summarizes testimony gathered through national consultations with sexually exploited street youth. Facilitated by former youth sex trade workers, consultations were held in Halifax, Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg, Saskatoon, Calgary, Vancouver and Victoria. Reflecting the voices of youth, the document outlines major themes, profiles and recommendations that emerged during the process. The consultations reveal a variety of youth experiences prior to their involvement in prostitution, which included physical, emotional, and/or sexual abuse (by a family member or someone outside immediate family), frequent rejection based on race, appearance or sexual orientation, and issues associated with drug addiction, teen pregnancy and low self esteem. Many youth expressed outrage with the lack of enforcement of legislation prohibiting the sexual exploitation of youth. The document includes several recommendations that emphasize prevention, education and support programs to prevent youth from becoming involved in prostitution, and risk management initiatives for children and youth currently involved in the sex trade.

Hanson, R. K. (1990). The psychological impact of sexual assault on women and children: A review. Annals of Sex Research, 3, 187-232.

This document reviews the available empirical literature on the psychological impact of sexual assault on women and children. The evidence suggests that adult female rape victims present high levels of distress immediately following an assault, a symptom commonly associated with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Stress levels appear to subside in the months and years following the assault. Child victims of sexual abuse do not as closely exhibit PTSD symptoms. Evidence suggest a link between sexual abuse and long-term negative adjustment, however initial assessments following a sexual assault indicate that small numbers of child victims experience few “adjustment problems.” The document also outlines factors related to the negative psychological impact of sexual assault.

Hardman, K. (1997). A social work group for prostitutes women with children. Social Work with Groups, 20 (1), 19-31.

This article describes an advice- and skills-based social work group for prostitute women with children. Developed in London, England, the 10-week program was designed by a social worker, in conjunction with the prostitutes who participated in the group (N=23). Relying on feminist theory, the program aims to empower women to exit prostitution. Among other things, the program focuses on “benefits and welfare, parenting skills, health care, housing, counseling and therapy resources, and education.” Upon completing the program, less than 50% (9 women) decided to stop prostituting. However, all participants “registered with the local health clinic.” The author also discusses case studies of prostitutes and participant feedback.

Harvey, G. (1992). Prostitution...A Matter of Choice? Unpublished master’s thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.

Prostitution flourishes within a capitalist and patriarchal social structure. With few options for survival, some women enter the sex trade as a means of subsistence. This independent inquiry examines the connection between female prostitution and poverty, choice and female sexuality. The author conceptualizes prostitution as a coping mechanism for women who are victimized by abject poverty and sexual abuse. The paper focuses on four major themes: 1) external environmental forces related to prostitution; 2) the failure of political ideologies to account for the experiences of women on the street; 3) the relationship between prostitution and poverty, capitalism, patriarchy, racism, emotional abuse and physical and sexual abuse; 4) the quasi-legal status of prostitution. The author argues that prostitutes are victimized before they run away from home, and they are re-victimized by society’s response to their involvement in the sex trade. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations to end the victimization of women involved in prostitution and provide them with alternative life choices (e.g., decriminalization, exit and counseling services, housing, education and job skills training).

Hermann, K.J. (1987). Children sexually exploited for profit: A plea for a new social work priority. Social Work, 523-525.

The social work industry has failed to develop a concerted effort to confront the incidence of child pornography, child prostitution, and trafficking of children for sexual purposes. The author of this article provides information on child sexual exploitation, with the goal of encouraging social workers to address the victimization experienced by this population. In addition to discussing the definition of child sexual exploitation and estimating the number of sexually exploited youth worldwide, the author provides case examples of the commercial sexual exploitation of youth. The author concludes by challenging the social work profession to live up to its professional values and principles by combating the sexual exploitation of youth.

Hornick, J.P., & Bolitho, F. (1992). A review of the implementation of the child sexual abuse legislation in selected sites: Studies on the sexual abuse of children in Canada. Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services.

In response to the Committee on Sexual Offences Against Children and Youth (the Badgley Report, 1984) the federal government introduced Bill C-15, An Act to Amend the Criminal Code and the Canada Evidence Act to confront the issue of child sexual abuse. Bill C-15 included a mandatory evaluation to be conducted four years after its introduction. Studies conducted throughout Canada were mandated to outline the relationship between the child welfare system and the criminal justice system with respect to child sexual abuse, examine the experiences of child victims/witnesses of sexual abuse cases, and ascertain whether the goals and objectives of Bill C-15 were being achieved. This document overviews and compares studies conducted in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario. The report indicates that legislation prohibiting the sexual procurement of youth has not been effective in confronting juvenile prostitution. Overall, the substantive and procedural components of Bill C-15 are providing better protection to sexually abused youth, and are contributing to “successful prosecution” of child sexual abuse cases.

Hwang, S.L. (1995).Agents, victims or deviants? Female prostitution in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison.

This research studies the situational and ideological factors contributing to a female’s (both women and girls) decision to prostitute, and the consequences of prostitution in Taiwan. Data was obtained through participant observation and in-depth interviews with 57 prostitutes during 1991 and 1992. The data reveal that class, ethnicity, and gender variables intertwine with issues of family disruption, sexual and physical abuse, and poverty and school problems to influence a girl’s decision to prostitute. Adult prostitutes were less likely to have experienced dysfunctional family settings and childhood abuse; their decision to prostitute was more frequently associated with single motherhood and a desire for “upward economic mobility.” The author suggests that age, motivation for entering prostitution, and previous abuse impacts upon a prostitute’s lifestyle (“normal” versus “deviant”) and their ability to deal with social stigma and work-related stress.

Inciardi, J. (1984). Little girls and sex: A glimpse at the world of the ‘Baby Pro’. Deviant Behaviour, 5, 77-78.

There is limited research on children under the age of 12 who are involved in prostitution. The impetus for this study stemmed from concern with substance abuse among youths. The research process uncovered nine children (ages 8 to 12) who acknowledged involvement in prostitution. These youth were introduced into prostitution by relatives, not through a process associated with running away. The subjects’ initiation into sex was not associated with drugs, however it appears to be “motivated by a fear of rejection.” Further, their early sexual experiences did not seem to produce traumatic effects.

Inciardi, J. (1989). Trading sex for crack among juvenile drug users: A research rote. Contemporary Drug Problems, 16, 689-700.

The author interviewed 27 females who traded sex for crack. The participants were asked to describe their “criminal activities, drug use and experience with prostitution.” The data suggest respondents were involved in sex for crack and prostitution to earn money to buy crack. The author also indicates that respondents have a prolonged and intense history of substance abuse and involvement in crime.

Inciardi, J., Pottieger, A., Forney, M., Chitwood, D., & McBride, D. (1991). Prostitution, IV drug use, and sex-for-crack exchanges among serious delinquents: Risks for HIV infection.Criminology, 29, 221-235.

Since the early 1980s, concern has surfaced with the risk of HIV and AIDS infection among intravenous drug users. Recent evidence suggests that inner city minorities and youth involved in high-risk activities (i.e., multiple sex partners and injecting drugs) are contracting HIV at an increasing rate. Researchers for this study conducted in-person interviews with 611 “seriously delinquent” males and females between the ages of 12 to 17. Informal follow-up interviews were conducted with 50 respondents. Participants were asked questions concerning their participation in prostitution, drug use, and sex-for-crack experiences. The results indicate that a large percentage of respondents were found to be involved in these HIV-risk activities (these “risk behaviours” appear to be commonplace among inner city “adolescent groups”). The data also reveal that many youth have not received adequate assistance from community agencies. The authors recommend special AIDS prevention/intervention programs, and drug treatment to combat HIV infection among adolescents.